![]() | The Diplomacy of Nationalism: The Six Companies and China’s Policy toward Exclusion Subjects: Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (San Francisco Calif.) -- History; Chinese Americans -- California -- San Francisco -- Social conditions -- 19th century; Chinese Americans -- California -- San Francisco -- Economic conditions -- 19th century; ; This is a striking, original portrait of the Chinese Six Companies (Zhonghua huiguan), or Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, the most prominent support organization for Chinese immigrants in the U.S. in the late nineteenth century. As a federation of "native-place associations" (huiguan) in California, the Six Companies responded to racist acts and legislation by organizing immigrant communities and employing effective diplomatic strategies against exclusion. Yucheng Qin substantiates recent arguments that Chinese immigrants were resourceful in fighting for their rights and, more importantly, he argues that through the Six Companies they created a political rhetoric and civic agenda that were then officially adopted by Qing court officials, who at first were unprepared for modern diplomacy. Out of necessity, these officials turned to the Six Companies for assistance and would in time adopt the tone and format of its programs during China's turbulent transition from a tributary system to that of a modern nation-state. |
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